Building Codes for the Fire Services

In the recent Charleston, S pop outh Carolina furniture w arho habit awaken, golf-club fire-eaters perished appargonntly by compromised and morphological crock up of the withstands roof. wholly(prenominal) year, fire related accidents dressd by edifice collapse flashover and deadly smoking have been the leading causes of injuries or deaths of firefighters each(prenominal) over the United States (Dunn, 2007). to the highest degree tragic was the World Trade Center Twin Towers collapse where 343 members of the run off De ploughsharement city of New York (FDNY) perished died fifty- sestet minutes after the attacks (Femas US decamp Administration, 2002).The edifice officials, fire department, architects and engineers did not anticipate that much(prenominal) an attack could happen in Ameri raise soil. In the light of these developments, the prevalent called for a review of all breathing construction and fire codes in the country. Dunn (2007) enumerated three most deadl y situations in fire fleck history where the ten-year study of the subject atomic number 18a Fire security department Association indicated them as the main causes of injuries and fatalities of firefighters. They are collapse, break open spread and smoke.The most common types of collapse that have injured and killed many an separate(prenominal) in the line of duty were floor collapse, roof collapse, wall collapse and ceiling collapse (Dunn 2007). It is imperative that firefighters have the basic knowledge on the fashion of buildings opus being engulfed in flames. What they know could save their lives when they dribble the jeopardize of controlling the situation. It is too important to look back at previous strategies on how buildings were deemed fire proofed and considered safe at all times.To avoid a repeat of the tragic incidents, regulatory bodies, engineers, the academe and other professionals pit their wits and talents to ensure building safety standards are met. It i s indispensable that some of the codes have become obsolete with the introduction of new building facial expression technologies. The Need to Overhaul Existing principles Traditionally, the safety of buildings has been adjust by codes all over the country.Since the 1800s the safety of buildings had been mandated by these codes and they include the use of fire resistive materials, compartmentation features, and later, installation of automatic sprinkler outlines and automatic fire terror systems. (Solomon and Hagglund, 2001, p. 619). All of these prescriptions were intended to ensure building safety even in the event of a fire. These also purported to make tall buildings safer. These had worked well beneath hazardous circumstances but were tested when the 9/11 attacks give-up the ghostred.Codes across the United States are also moving towards performance measures in summing up to the time-tested prescriptions of the codes (Solomon and Hagglund, 2001, p. 619). In New York urban center, for example, Mayor Bloomberg called for a review of the existing codes that had been in force since 1968 to conform to contemporary needs. New York has four eddy codes namely the construction Code, Fuel Gas, Mechanical and Plumbing Codes (New New York City Construction Codes, n. d. , p. 1). The City government was caught flatfooted with an outdated construction code when the 9/11 attacks struck.The amendments to the code include the adoption of the International twist Code (IBC) format, placing safety as a priority and preserving some elements of the existing codes while enhancing the requirements for fire protection, construction safety, and morphologic integrity requirements for new buildings. (New New York City Construction Codes, n. d. , p. 1) Moore (n. d. ) defined building codes as extratechnological laws that govern the design and construction of structures. (p. 262). The codes follow the dictates social and ethical mores where the protection of life and property is a priority.It also traces its roots in the Hammurabi code where a builder was held creditworthy for a collapsed house that killed its occupants and applying the lex talionis principle of justice (p. 262). Codes also had grown out of the necessity to adhere to insurance regulations. Protection goals include all the capability of a building or warehouse that were insured. Failure to mitigate the risk like loss to fire would mean economic repercussions for the community or state (Solomon and Hagglund, 2001, p. 625).Code prescriptions until the 1940s prescribed a fire resistive building as brand name framed or buildings that had skeletal framework of steel columns and beams which supported the actual weight of the structure and its contents. (Portolan, n. d. ) The structural elements were fireproofed or shut in in concrete or tile (Portolan, n. d. ) In the 1920s, the codes also regulated the heights of buildings where height limitations had a direct relationship to the construction methods active (Solomon and Hagglund, 2001, p. 626).Each state though had its interpretation and regulations c erstrning construction practices. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) proposed a performance based approach to tall building designs with the hope the building designs and construction methodologies respond to the need for safer buildings. The NFPA outlined six goals to performance based building design. They include Life sanctuary of Building Occupants Property/ nationals Protection Mission Continuity Environmental government issue of Fire Heritage/Cultural Preservation and Fire Suppression strength Safety (Solomon and Hagglund, 2001, p.632). However, not all directives and codes today follow the suggestions of NFPA. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) developed their standards specifically aimed at protecting both(prenominal) firefighters and civilians from fire-related injuries. Some of the standards relevant to the construction industry include NFPA 5000 (Building Construction and Safety Code) NFPA 13 (Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems) NFPA 501 (Standard on Manufactured Housing) (NIOSH, 2005, p. 3).According to NIOSH (2005), while there are existing standard tests like ANSI (American National Standards Institute) or ASTM (American Society for test and Materials) that govern the safety measures in building materials and construction methodologies, these do not take into consideration real situations involving actual conflagrations and how fires would impact on the structural integrity of the structures (p. 4). NIOSH (2005) also pointed out that existing building codes enforced in various states were not designed specifically to protect firefighters.The design cerebrate was on evacuation procedures and how occupants in the building could escape to safety once an unfortunate event kick the bucketred (p. 4). With the new reality that unfolded post-9/11, existing building codes must be re viewed for and in consideration of the risks involved when disasters strike. Basic Knowledge on morphologic Behaviors of Buildings According to Portolan (n. d. (b)), there are five elements of a building that the firefighters need to consider when evaluating how buildings will behave in case of fire and which strategies to use to contain the problem.They include the type of construction, size of the building, age of the construction, renovation and occupancy. These are essential information that firefighters can use to plan their wrinkle of actions. In addition, knowledge on the behavior of the different structural elements of the building is also imperative. Structural loading creates different stresses on the structures and they may occur separately or in combination. The stresses include compression, tensile and shear stresses (Portolan, n. d (b). ). Compression acts when materials are pressed against each other.Tensile stresses happen when the structural elements are pulled i n two different directions. Shear stresses cause materials to fracture and slip across the defect in the opposite direction (Portolan, n. d (b). ). Structural elements of the building are subjected to different piles. Columns are commonly subjected to axile loads. chip loads are directed along a parallel axis of rotation to the longitudinal section of the structural member and are off-centered. Torsion loads can cause twisting in the structural elements (Portolan, n. d (b).) past from the stresses, the firefighters also need to consider which part of the structures are vulnerable or the structural integrity had been compromised because of the fire. When steel beams are subjected to unusually high temperature, the structural member may expand and elongate. If both ends are tightly secured, tortuousness stresses may cause twisting in beams (Portolan, n. d. (b)). Columns carry the greatest axial loads. The more slender the column, the more it is susceptible to buckling. When axial loads ex kind to eccentric or torsion loads, it could also be a cause of failure (Portolan, n. d. (b)).About 60% of the buildings in the United States use the truss system for roofs (NIOSH, 2005, p. 1). Most of the truss systems were made of wood materials. Recent innovation introduced collimatekle construction materials for truss systems including steel and lighter weight materials intended to harmonise wider spans. Under normal conditions, these engineered materials may perform well. However, when fire occurs, they may be weakened and compromised causing the collapse of roof and floor systems (p. 1). Types of Building Collapses delinquent to Fire Collapse patterns are different for each element of the building.Walls oft collapse in a 90-degree angle. These walls are often constructed using fortify masonry. Curtain wall collapse occurs when the outer veneer becomes disconnected and they go through straight down to the base of the wall. This type of collapse is also exhibit ed by unreinforced walls. Inward or outward collapse may also occur if the wall is breached or at areas where it is considerably weaker like door or window openings (Portolan, n. d. (b)). Truss systems of roof and floor often cave-in as their structural integrities were affected by conflagration. Steel trusses are also susceptible to magnification and torsion stresses.Often, firefighters used visual indicators to predict an impending collapse. But these were not enough to prevent accidents from happening. NIOSH (2005) listed three conditions where truss collapse occurs. First, when a firefighter works on the roof top of the burning building, chances of a cave-in is passing high because the hidden structural members of the truss system had already been subjected to utmost(prenominal) temperatures thereby weakening them. Second, firefighters working inside the burning structure are also subjected to the risk of the entire roof falling onto them.Finally, failed truss systems can pre cipitate other parts of the structure to collapse like walls (p. 4). some other type of collapse usually found in tall structures is referred to as progressive collapse. Nair (2004) defined progressive collapse as collapse of all or a large part of a structure precipitated by failure or damage of a relatively small part of it. (p. 1) This theory was used in part to explain why the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York collapsed. Conclusion well-read how structural members behave during fire would mitigate the risk factors and prevent injuries and deaths.Part of the education of firefighters is knowing how to evaluate the condition of the burning edifice before passing game in and making a plan of action. The different studies on the behavior of buildings on fire proved to be valuable to firefighters. The recent events had also made regulating bodies review their out-dated Codes. Existing building codes do not include the protection of firefighters in the event of fi re. The NFPA and the IBC remedied that deficiency. However, code changes were also met with opposition. Building codes were primarily implemented with economic considerations in mind.It would prove to be more costly for the building owner if NFPA or IBC was followed. According to Gips (2005), of the various proposals for change in the Codes, only one was acceptable and included in the IBC. It come to the fire-resistance ratings of buildings of 420 feet or higher. The new code required a minimum three-hour structural fire-resistance rating, whether sprinklers are present or not. (p. 42+). Other provisions that would make it safer for both firefighters and occupants need more work. References Dunn, V. (2007). Dunns Dispatch 9 firefighters die fighting fire in South Carolina furniture storeroom fire.Retrieved 26 June 2007 from http//cms. firehouse. com/content/article/article. jsp? sectionId=14&id=55205 FEMAs US Fire Administration (2002). regular army releases preliminary firefight er fatality statistics for 2001. Retrieved 26 June 2007 from http//mcftoa. org/Deathstats1. htm Gips, M. A. (2005, March). The Challenge of Making Safer Structures tercet and a Half Years after 9-11, Building Codes Are provided Starting to Reflect Lessons Learned from the World Trade Center Collapse. security measure Management, 49, 42+. Retrieved June 27, 2007, from Questia database http//www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=o&d=5008988697 Moore, S. A. (n. d.) Building Codes in encyclopedia of Science, Technology and Ethics, 262-266 Retrieved 26 June 2007 from http//soa. utexas. edu/faculty/moore/selectpub/enc_buildingcodes. pdf Nair, R. S. (2004) Progressive collapse basics. Retrieved 27 June 2007 from http//www. aisc. org/Content/ContentGroups/Documents/Selected_Nair/nairhotlink2. pdf New New York City Construction Codes (n. d. ) Retrieved 26 June 2007 from http//nyc. gov/html/dob/downloads/pdf/cons_code_faqs. pdf NIOSH (2005) Preventing injuries or deaths of firefighters due to trus s system failures. Retrieved 27 June 2007 from http//www. cdc. gov/niosh/docs/2005-132/pdfs/2005-132.pdf Portolan, C. (n. d. ) Building Construction fussy situations Retrieved 27 June 2007 from http//www. lbfdtraining. com/Pages/buildingconstruction/specialsituations. html Portolan, C. (n. d. (b)) Glossary of building construction terminology Retrieved 27 June 2007 from http//www. lbfdtraining. com/Pages/buildingconstruction/bconstructintro. html Solomon, R. E. and Hagglund, B. (2001) Performance code requirements in the tall building purlieu in Tall buildings and urban habitat Cities in the third millennium. Council On Tall Buildings And Urban Habitat orgname. New York Spon Press, 619-634.